“The voluntary consent of the human subject is absolutely essential.”

The Nuremberg Code (1947) Article 1

“The person involved [participant in the experiment] should… be able to exercise free power of choice, without the intervention of any element of force, fraud, deceit, duress, overreaching, or other ulterior form of constraint or coercion.”

The Nuremberg Code (1947) Article 1

“The human subject should be at liberty to bring the experiment to an end… where continuation of the experiment seems to him to be impossible.”

The Nuremberg Code (1947) Article 9

“Everyone has the right to life, liberty and the security of person.”

UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) Article 3

“No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence.”

UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) Article 12

“Everyone has the right to freedom of thought [and] conscience… and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his… belief in teaching, practice… and observance.”

UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) Article 18

“Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.”

UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) Article 19

“Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.”

UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) Article 20 (1)

“Everyone, as a member of society… is entitled to realization… in accordance with… cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality.”

UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) Article 22

“Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.”

UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) Article 26 (2)

“Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children.”

UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) Article 26 (3)

“Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community.”

UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) Article 27 (1)

“Ethical issues raised by the rapid advances in science and their technological applications should be examined with due respect to the dignity of the human person and universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Preamble

“On the freedom of science and research, scientific and technological developments… such developments should always seek to promote the welfare of individuals, families… in the recognition of the dignity of the human person and universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Preamble

“Decisions regarding ethical issues in medicine, life sciences and associated technologies may have an impact on individuals, families, groups or communities and humankind as a whole.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Preamble

“Innovation and creativity, is necessary to humankind… but… it may not be invoked at the expense of human rights and fundamental freedoms.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Preamble

“A person’s identity includes biological, psychological, social, cultural and spiritual dimensions.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Preamble

“The interests and welfare of the individual should have priority over the sole interest of science or society.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 3 (2)

“The autonomy of persons to make decisions… is to be respected.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 5

“Scientific research should only be carried out with the prior, free, express and informed consent of the person concerned.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 6 (2)

“Scientific research… should include modalities for withdrawal of consent. Consent may be withdrawn by the person concerned at any time and for any reason without any disadvantage or prejudice. Exceptions to this principle should be made only in accordance with ethical and legal standards… and international human rights law.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 6 (2)

“In no case should a collective community agreement or the consent of a community leader or other authority substitute for an individual’s informed consent.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 6 (3)

“Special protection is to be given to persons who do not have the capacity to consent: authorization for research and medical practice should be obtained in accordance with the best interest of the person concerned… the person concerned should be involved to the greatest extent possible in the decision-making process of consent, as well as that of withdrawing consent.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 7 (a)

“Special protection is to be given to persons who do not have the capacity to consent: research should only be carried out for his or her direct health benefit… exposing the person only to a minimal risk and minimal burden… compatible with the protection of the individual’s human rights. Refusal of such persons to take part in research should be respected.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 7 (b)

“Human vulnerability should be taken into account… and the personal integrity of such individuals respected.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 8

“No individual or group should be discriminated against or stigmatized on any grounds, in violation of human dignity, human rights and fundamental freedoms.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 11

“The importance of cultural diversity and pluralism should be given due regard. However, such considerations are not to be invoked to infringe upon human dignity, human rights and fundamental freedoms.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 12

“Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any claim to engage in any activity or to perform any act contrary to human rights, fundamental freedoms and human dignity.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 28

“There must be strict adherence to the general rules of respect of the individual.”

Principles for Those in Research & Experimentation (1954) Article 1