“The duty and responsibility for ascertaining the quality of the consent rests upon each individual who initiates, directs, or engages in the experiment. It is a personal duty and responsibility which may not be delegated to another with impunity.”

The Nuremberg Code (1947) Article 1

“The paramount factor in experimentation on human beings is the responsibility of the research worker and not the willingness of the person submitting to the experiment.”

Principles for Those in Research & Experimentation (1954) Article 3

“In the presence of individual and desperate cases one may attempt… a treatment of a rather daring nature. Such exceptions will be rare and require the approval either of the person or his next of kin… it is the doctor’s conscience which will make the decision.”

Principles for Those in Research & Experimentation (1954) Article 4