“The person involved [participant in the experiment] should… be able to exercise free power of choice, without the intervention of any element of force, fraud, deceit, duress, overreaching, or other ulterior form of constraint or coercion.”

The Nuremberg Code (1947) Article 1

“Before the acceptance of an affirmative decision by the experimental subject there should be made known to him… all inconveniences and hazards reasonably to be expected; and the effects upon his health or person which may possibly come from his participation in the experiment.”

The Nuremberg Code (1947) Article 1

“The experiment should be so conducted as to avoid all unnecessary physical and mental suffering and injury.”

The Nuremberg Code (1947) Article 4

“No experiment should be conducted where there is an a priori reason to believe that death or disabling injury will occur.”

The Nuremberg Code (1947) Article 5

“Proper preparations should be made and adequate facilities provided to protect the experimental subject against even remote possibilities of injury, disability or death.”

The Nuremberg Code (1947) Article 7

“The scientist in charge must be prepared to terminate the experiment at any stage, if he has probable cause to believe… that a continuation of the experiment is likely to result in injury, disability, or death to the experimental subject.”

The Nuremberg Code (1947) Article 10

“In applying and advancing scientific knowledge, medical practice and associated technologies, direct and indirect benefits to patients, research participants and other affected individuals should be maximized and any possible harm to such individuals should be minimized.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 4

“Human vulnerability should be taken into account… and the personal integrity of such individuals respected.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 8

“The impact of life sciences on future generations, including on their genetic constitution, should be given due regard.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 16

“Professionalism, honesty, integrity and transparency in decision-making should be promoted, in particular declarations of all conflicts of interest and appropriate sharing of knowledge.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 18 (1)

“Every endeavour should be made… in addressing and periodically reviewing bioethical issues.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 18 (1)

“Society as a whole should be engaged in dialogue on a regular basis.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 18 (2)

“Informed pluralistic public debate, seeking the expression of all relevant opinions, should be promoted.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 18 (3)

“Independent, multidisciplinary and pluralist ethics committees should be established… in order to: assess the relevant ethical, legal, scientific and social issues related to research projects involving human beings.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 19 (a)

“Independent, multidisciplinary and pluralist ethics committees should be established… in order to: foster debate, education and public awareness of, and engagement in, bioethics.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 19 (d)

“Assessment and adequate management of risk related to medicine, life sciences and associated technologies should be promoted.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 20

“When research is undertaken or otherwise pursued… such research should be the object of an appropriate level of ethical review… based on ethical and legal standards that are consistent with the principles set out in this Declaration.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 21 (2)

“States should take appropriate measures… to combat bioterrorism and illicit traffic in… genetic resources and genetic-related materials.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 21 (5)

“States should take all appropriate measures, whether of a legislative, administrative or other character, to give effect to the principles set out in this Declaration in accordance with international human rights law… supported by action in the spheres of education, training and public information.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 22 (1)

“States should encourage the establishment of independent, multidisciplinary and pluralist ethics committees.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 22 (2)

“To achieve a better understanding of the ethical implications of scientific and technological developments, in particular for young people, States should endeavour to foster bioethics education and training at all levels.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 23 (1)

“States should encourage the participation of… regional and national non governmental organizations in this endeavour.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 23 (2)

“States should foster… and encourage the free flow and sharing of scientific and technological knowledge.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 24 (1)

“The World Medical Association draws attention to the detrimental effects of premature or unjustified statements.”

Principles for Those in Research & Experimentation (1954) Article 2

“Every step must be taken in order to make sure that those who submit themselves to experimentation be fully informed.”

Principles for Those in Research & Experimentation (1954) Article 3

“The paramount factor in experimentation on human beings is the responsibility of the research worker and not the willingness of the person submitting to the experiment.”

Principles for Those in Research & Experimentation (1954) Article 3

“In the presence of individual and desperate cases one may attempt… a treatment of a rather daring nature. Such exceptions will be rare and require the approval either of the person or his next of kin… it is the doctor’s conscience which will make the decision.”

Principles for Those in Research & Experimentation (1954) Article 4

“It should be required that each person who submits to experimentation be informed of the… risk of the proposed experiment.”

Principles for Those in Research & Experimentation (1954) Article 5

“It should be required that each person who submits to experimentation be informed [and] consent should be obtained in writing.”

Principles for Those in Research & Experimentation (1954) Article 5