“The person involved [participant in the experiment] should… be able to exercise free power of choice, without the intervention of any element of force, fraud, deceit, duress, overreaching, or other ulterior form of constraint or coercion.”

The Nuremberg Code (1947) Article 1

“If man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected by the rule of law.”

UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) Preamble

“Every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their universal and effective recognition and observance.”

UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) Preamble

“Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as… political or other opinion.”

UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) Article 2

“All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination.”

UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) Article 7

“Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights.”

UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) Article 10

“Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms.”

UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) Article 26 (2)

“Ethical issues raised by the rapid advances in science and their technological applications should be examined with due respect to the dignity of the human person and universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Preamble

“It is necessary and timely for the international community to state universal principles that will provide a foundation for humanity’s response to the ever-increasing dilemmas and controversies that science and technology present for humankind.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Preamble

“On the freedom of science and research, scientific and technological developments… such developments should always seek to promote the welfare of individuals, families… in the recognition of the dignity of the human person and universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Preamble

“Innovation and creativity, is necessary to humankind… but… it may not be invoked at the expense of human rights and fundamental freedoms.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Preamble

“Moral sensitivity and ethical reflection should be an integral part of the process of scientific and technological developments and that bioethics should play a predominant role in the choices that need to be made.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Preamble

“All human beings, without distinction, should benefit from the same high ethical standards in medicine and life science research.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Preamble

“[This declaration aims] to… protect human rights, by ensuring… fundamental freedoms, consistent with international human rights law.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 2 (c)

“[This declaration aims] to recognize… the need for… research and developments to occur within the framework of ethical principles… and to respect human dignity, human rights and fundamental freedoms.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 2 (d)

“Human dignity, human rights and fundamental freedoms are to be fully respected.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 3 (1)

“The autonomy of persons to make decisions… is to be respected.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 5

“The fundamental equality of all human beings in dignity and rights is to be respected so that they are treated justly and equitably.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 10

“No individual or group should be discriminated against or stigmatized on any grounds, in violation of human dignity, human rights and fundamental freedoms.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 11

“The importance of cultural diversity and pluralism should be given due regard. However, such considerations are not to be invoked to infringe upon human dignity, human rights and fundamental freedoms.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 12

“Professionalism, honesty, integrity and transparency in decision-making should be promoted, in particular declarations of all conflicts of interest and appropriate sharing of knowledge.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 18 (1)

“Every endeavour should be made… in addressing and periodically reviewing bioethical issues.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 18 (1)

“Independent, multidisciplinary and pluralist ethics committees should be established… in order to: assess the relevant ethical, legal, scientific and social issues related to research projects involving human beings.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 19 (a)

“Independent, multidisciplinary and pluralist ethics committees should be established… in order to: foster debate, education and public awareness of, and engagement in, bioethics.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 19 (d)

“Assessment and adequate management of risk related to medicine, life sciences and associated technologies should be promoted.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 20

“States, public and private institutions… should endeavour to ensure that any activity within the scope of this Declaration… is consistent with the principles set out in this Declaration.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 21 (1)

“States should take all appropriate measures, whether of a legislative, administrative or other character, to give effect to the principles set out in this Declaration in accordance with international human rights law… supported by action in the spheres of education, training and public information.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 22 (1)

“States should encourage the establishment of independent, multidisciplinary and pluralist ethics committees.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 22 (2)

“To achieve a better understanding of the ethical implications of scientific and technological developments, in particular for young people, States should endeavour to foster bioethics education and training at all levels.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 23 (1)

“States should encourage the participation of… regional and national non governmental organizations in this endeavour.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 23 (2)

“States should foster… and encourage the free flow and sharing of scientific and technological knowledge.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 24 (1)

“States should respect and promote solidarity between and among… individuals, families, groups and communities.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 24 (3)

“Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or person any claim to engage in any activity or to perform any act contrary to human rights, fundamental freedoms and human dignity.”

UNESCO Declaration on Bioethics & Human Rights (2005) Article 28

“Every step must be taken in order to make sure that those who submit themselves to experimentation be fully informed.”

Principles for Those in Research & Experimentation (1954) Article 3

“The paramount factor in experimentation on human beings is the responsibility of the research worker and not the willingness of the person submitting to the experiment.”

Principles for Those in Research & Experimentation (1954) Article 3

“In the presence of individual and desperate cases one may attempt… a treatment of a rather daring nature. Such exceptions will be rare and require the approval either of the person or his next of kin… it is the doctor’s conscience which will make the decision.”

Principles for Those in Research & Experimentation (1954) Article 4

“It should be required that each person who submits to experimentation be informed of the… risk of the proposed experiment.”

Principles for Those in Research & Experimentation (1954) Article 5

“It should be required that each person who submits to experimentation be informed [and] consent should be obtained in writing.”

Principles for Those in Research & Experimentation (1954) Article 5